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Resistance Movements in American History

Resistance to authority in the form of despotism, totalitarianism, tyranny, monarchy, dictatorship, and other oppressions of self-rule and self-determination have been common throughout human history. The yearning for and understanding of Natural Rights has grown throughout human history, and with it, the desire for Liberty and Freedom has increased. As such, there have been resistance movements throughout world history to satisfy this yearning for Liberty and Freedom. This has been particularly true in American history, as this article examines.

Resistance Movements of the Revolutionary War

America itself was born out of resistance to the authoritarianism of the British government that attempted to suppress self-rule and self-determination and the Natural Rights of the colonists as expressed in the particulars of the Declaration of Independence. In doing so, they formulated a new expression of the purpose of government and basic Natural Rights in the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.”

In this paragraph, they also established the legitimacy of resistance if it were for the purposes of self-rule and self-determination, and the desire for governmental protection of Liberties and Freedoms that flow from the Natural Rights of the people.

After winning its freedom from England in the American Revolution, Americans attempted to enshrine the principles of this new formulation of government in the Constitution of the United States, as expressed in the preamble to the Constitution:

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

Prior to the Revolutionary War, and shortly after the French and Indian War, the English Parliament and the British Crown expected that the American colonists would pay for the costs of French and Indian War, and help pay for the costs of the Seven Years' War, which was a Great Power conflict fought primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and Southern Asia, and which the French and Indian War was a part of. For the first time, the British imposed direct taxes upon the American colonists, without going through the colony’s legislatures, and without any colonial representation in Parliament. They even began using military force to collect these taxes. These tensions escalated into protests (sometimes violent protests) and then armed conflicts between the English forces and colonial resistance forces, and culminated in the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolutionary War.

Even during the American Revolutionary War, there was a resistance movement against Independence. Many American colonists (by some estimates one-third of the colonists) were against independence, and many of those so inclined (i.e., Tories) fought with the British troops against independence. And many of these Tories migrated to Canada and England after independence was won. Those Tories who remained in America were often mistreated and scorned by the newly independent Americans.

Resistance Movements Prior to the Civil War

Yet, America was not perfect in these principles of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, as they violated them by allowing the stain and evil of slavery to exist in America. This led to the second great resistance in America and eventually to the Civil War that ended this stain and evil, as I have examined in my article on “Slavery in the United States Constitution”.

Slavery had been in the American colonies and the United States from almost its beginnings. It was not restricted to any one Colony or geographical area but existed in all parts of the American colonies. In the Northern colonies, slavery eventually proved to be uneconomical, but in the Southern colonies, it became economical. Thus, it continued in the American colonies and the United States. The religious and philosophical enlightenment awaking in the Northern colonies and the northern United States led to the realization of the evils of slavery, while in the Southern colonies and the southern United States, the economic hardships of eliminating slavery led them to turn a blind eye to the evil of slavery and make excuses for the continuation of slavery.

Consequently, resistance to slavery and support for slavery grew in the pre-Civil War history of America. Political and civil strife about slavery grew in pre-Civil War times, and much civil strife resulted in violence and armed conflicts. Much bad legislation was passed by Congress, and terrible Supreme Court decisions on slavery contributed to this civil strife. It took the Civil War to resolve this strife and put an end to slavery in America.

Resistance Movements After the Civil War

After the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution put an end to the stain of slavery, there arose in the southern states a resistance to equality for the former slaves. Jim Crow laws and segregation practices, along with lynchings and mob violence against the former slaves, arose. As this bigotry and discrimination against the former slaves arose, so too did resistance movements for Civil Rights arise, as I shall discuss in my section on ‘Resistance Movements for Civil Rights’ of this article.

Resistance Movements of World War I

Prior to America’s entrance into World Wars I and II, there was significant resistance in America to our entrance into these wars. Only when these wars were framed in the context of Liberty and Freedom, and against Natural Rights violations by the Germans, did the resistance to these wars dissipate.

There was great reluctance in America about entering World War I, especially by German-American citizens, as well as other Americans who opposed wars and/or were pacifists. President Wilson was well aware of this reluctance and delayed America's entry into World War I until after his reelection, and, indeed, he campaigned on “He kept us out of war”.

Most Americans are unknowledgeable about the history of World War I, as it occurred over a century ago, and there are few television documentaries for them to view. It is also a fact that the political history of World War I was successfully concealed, as it reveals a darker side of American history. As has been said about Thomas Fleming’s book, The Illusion of Victory: America In World War I, “The political history of the American experience in World War I is a story of conflict and bungled intentions that begins in an era dedicated to progressive social reform and ends in the Red Scare and Prohibition. Thomas Fleming tells this story through the complex figure of Woodrow Wilson, the contradictory president who wept after declaring war, devastated because he knew it would destroy the tolerance of the American people, but who then suppressed freedom of speech and used propaganda to excite America into a Hun-hating mob. This is tragic history: inexperienced American military leaders drove their troops into gruesome slaughters; progressive politics were put on hold in America; an idealistic president's dreams were crushed because of his own negligence.”

The political history of World War I set the stage for the political history of World War II.

Resistance Movements of World War II

Opposition to World War II was expressed by the governments and peoples of all combatant nations to various extents. Initial reluctance for conflict in the Allied democratic nations changed to overwhelming, but not complete, support once the war had been joined. Some politicians and military leaders in the Axis powers opposed starting or expanding the conflict during its course. However, the totalitarian nature of these countries limited their effect. Noncombatant nations opposed joining the war for a variety of reasons, including self-preservation, economic disincentives, or a belief in neutrality in and of itself. After the war, the populations of the former Axis powers mostly regretted their nations' involvement. In contrast, the people of Allied nations celebrated their involvement and the perceived just nature of the war, particularly in comparison with World War I.

Before the U.S. entered World War II, there was significant resistance to the involvement of America in the war, largely due to isolationist sentiments among the public and politicians who believed the nation should focus on domestic issues rather than foreign conflicts. So great was this isolationism that President Franklin D. Roosevelt took great pains to disguise his effort to aid and assist the British in their war efforts, and his efforts to oppose the expansion of Imperial Japan in the Pacific. The American people felt no great animus toward Imperial Japan, and many German and Italian Americans supported Nazi Germany’s and Fascist Italy’s efforts to rebuild their countries after the devastation of World War I. Indeed, there were many rallies in America to not enter the overseas conflicts and stay out of war. It was only after the end of World War II that the true evil and horrors of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan were revealed to Americans and the people of the world.

It took the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor to awaken the American people to the wrongheadedness of their isolationism and to the inhumanity of Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy. When they did awake, the resistance to the entry of America into World War II dissipated overnight, and the American people held firm in their resolve to achieve victory over Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy, despite the heavy costs in lives, injuries, and treasury that the war entailed.

In the warmongering, before and during World War II, it was often downplayed or forgotten that many of the peoples of NAZI Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan resisted against their governments. The British and American authorities did not provide any support for these resisters and often engaged in words and deeds that were counterproductive to their efforts. The book The New Dealers' War: FDR and the War Within World War II by Thomas Fleming details many of the words and deeds that were counterproductive to the resistance and how the Allies could have provided assistance to the resisters. As it has been said about this book, “It brings to life the flawed and troubled FDR who struggled to manage WWII. Starting with the leak to the press of Roosevelt's famous Rainbow Plan, then spiraling back to FDR's inept prewar diplomacy with Japan, and his various attempts to lure Japan into an attack on the U.S. Fleet in the Pacific, Fleming takes the reader inside the incredibly fractious struggles and debates that went on in Washington, the nation, and the world as the New Dealers, led by FDR, strove to impose their will on the conduct of the War.

The German resistance to Nazism was composed of many individuals and groups in Germany that were opposed to the Nazi regime and engaged in resistance, including assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler or by overthrowing his regime. It has been estimated that during the course of World War II, 800,000 Germans were arrested by the Gestapo for resistance activities. It has also been estimated that between 15,000 and 77,000 Germans were executed by the Nazis. Resistance members were usually tried, mostly in show trials, by Sondergerichte (Special Courts), courts-martial, People's Courts, and the civil justice system. Many of the German resistance had served in government, military, or civil positions, which enabled them to engage in subversion and conspiracy.

The Italian resistance movement, Resistenza, is an umbrella term for the Italian resistance groups that fought the occupying forces of Nazi Germany and the fascist collaborationists of the Italian Social Republic during the Second World War in Italy from 1943 to 1945. As a diverse anti-fascist movement and organization, the Resistenza opposed Nazi Germany, as well as Nazi Germany's Italian puppet state regime, the Italian Social Republic, which the Germans created following the Nazi German invasion and military occupation of Italy by the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS from September 8, 1943, until April 25, 1945.

Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan consisted of individual Japanese dissidents against the policies of the Empire of Japan, but there were no formal resistance groups or movements.

What is important for the purposes of this article is that it is crucial to support any resistance group that opposes evil and the violations of Natural Rights. If we had done so in Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy before and during World War II, the history of this war may have been quite different. Therefore, it is important that we remember these resistance movements and learn the lessons of history if we do not support them. Thus, this article’s section is a remembrance of those people and groups in NAZI Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan that opposed the forces of evil in their countries. It is also a plea for support for resistance movements of those people who are standing up for self-rule and self-determination, and the Liberties and Freedoms of the people of their country in our modern world.

Resistance Movements for Civil Rights

The next great resistance movement in American history was in the form of the Civil Rights movement. This (mostly) nonviolent movement, placed in the context of Liberty and Freedom, gained the support of the American people and ended systemic bigotry and discrimination in America.

The Civil Rights movement in American history can be broken down into three phases: Civil Rights movement (1865–1896), Civil Rights movement (1896–1954), and Civil Rights movement (1954–1968).

The first Civil Rights movement (1865–1896) aimed to eliminate racial discrimination against African Americans, improve their educational and employment opportunities, and establish their electoral power, which occurred just after the abolition of slavery in the United States. The period from 1865 to 1895 saw a tremendous change in the fortunes of the Black community following the elimination of slavery in the South.

The Reconstruction Amendments, or the Civil War Amendments, are the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, adopted between 1865 and 1870. The amendments were a part of the implementation of the Reconstruction of the American South, which occurred after the Civil War. These Amendments were supplemented by Congressional legislation of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Civil Rights Act of 1875. These amendments and legislation were intended to guarantee the freedom of the formerly enslaved and grant certain civil rights to them, and to protect the formerly enslaved and all citizens of the United States from discrimination.

However, there was great resistance in the southern states to these reforms. Jim Crow laws and segregation practices, along with lynchings and mob violence against the former slaves, arose. The Supreme Court in its Slaughter-House Cases 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36 (1873), was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that held that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution only protects the legal rights that are associated with federal U.S. citizenship, not those that pertain to State citizenship. The decision consolidated two similar cases and was a blow to the first Civil Rights movement.

One of the reasons for the Civil War was to afford Federal protection for the Natural and Constitutional Rights of all American citizens. However, the aforementioned Supreme Court decision stripped Federal protection and allocated these protections to the States. This allowed the states to pass discriminatory and Jim Crow laws against the former slaves and allowed a reign of terror through mob actions and organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) against the former slaves in the Southern States.

Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), was a landmark decision made by the U.S. Supreme Court that codified the constitutional doctrine for racial segregation laws. In the eyes of the court, as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality, African-Americans could be served separately from the white population. The decision of the court is more commonly known as “separate but equal”. The decision legitimized the many state laws seeking to reestablish white supremacy in the former Confederate States after the Reconstruction era (1865-1877).

The second Civil Rights movement (1896–1954) occurred after the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision, and it was primarily aimed at changing State laws to end discriminatory practices. It was a long, primarily nonviolent action to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. It met with limited success, but it had a lasting impact on American society – in its tactics, the increased social and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of racism.

The third Civil Rights movement (1954–1968) was a social movement in the United States from 1954 to 1968 that aimed to abolish legalized racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement in the country, which most commonly affected African Americans. The movement had origins in the Reconstruction era in the late 19th century, and modern roots in the 1940s. After years of nonviolent protests and civil disobedience campaigns, the Civil Rights movement achieved many of its legislative goals in the 1960s, during which it secured new protections in federal law for the Civil Rights of all Americans.

The third Civil Rights movement turned its attention to Federal laws to achieve its goals. It began with the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), which was a landmark decision that ruled that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and hence are unconstitutional, even if the segregated facilities are presumed to be equal. The decision partially overruled the Court's 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson, which had held that racial segregation laws did not violate the U.S. Constitution as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that had come to be known as "separate but equal" and was rejected in Brown based on the argument that separate facilities are inherently unequal. The Court's unanimous decision in Brown and its related cases paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the Civil Rights movement, and a model for many future impact litigation cases.

It continued with landmark Civil Rights Acts in Congressional legislation of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, Civil Rights Act of 1960, Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Civil Rights Act of 1968, Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, and the Civil Rights Act of 1990. This timeline of the third Civil Rights Movement can be reviewed at Timeline of the civil rights movement.

Resistance Movements of the Vietnam War

The next resistance occurred in the protests against the Vietnam War. While initially, many of the resistors were nonviolent, as the war dragged on, much of this resistance turned violent. This violence divided Americans, and these divisions lingered on for many decades.

The Vietnam War fractured the American public into warring camps. Starting with President John Kennedy's involvement and escalation in 1961–63 of the Vietnam Civil War, continuing through President Lyndon Johnson's greater escalation from 1963-69, and President Richard Nixon’s further escalation and final withdrawal from Vietnam, resistance movements (some peaceful but many violent) sprang up throughout America. Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began in 1965 with demonstrations against the escalating role of the United States in the war. Over the next several years, these demonstrations grew into a social movement that was incorporated into the broader counterculture of the 1960s.

Much of the Vietnam War resistance started as generational, as those young Americans eligible for the draft thought that the Vietnam War was not morally justifiable and did not wish to fight in such a war. Many of the older generation considered the Vietnam War as a fight against Communism, and it was therefore justifiable and a patriotic duty to fight the war. This was also the first American war that was covered in real-time by the television news media, and the American people got an up-close and personal view of the horrors of war. This long war, with no end in sight and mounting casualties, turned many Americans against the war, which led to the U.S. exit and final campaigns of 1973–75.

Resistance Movements to the Middle East Conflicts

With the horrific events of 09/11/2001, in which America was attacked by terrorists, the United States went on the offensive against terrorist organizations and the countries and their leaders who supported terrorism.

The War in Afghanistan was a prolonged armed conflict lasting from 2001 to 2021. It began with an invasion by a United States–led coalition under the name Operation Enduring Freedom in response to the September 11 attacks carried out by the Taliban-allied and Afghanistan-based al-Qaeda. The Taliban were expelled from major population centers by American-led forces supporting the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance, thus toppling the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate. Three years later, the American-sponsored Islamic Republic was established, but by then the Taliban, led by founder Mullah Omar, had reorganized and begun an insurgency against the Afghan government and coalition forces. The conflict ended decades later as the 2021 Taliban offensive reestablished the Islamic Emirate. It was the longest war in United States military history, surpassing the Vietnam War by six months.

The Iraqi insurgency lasted from 2003 until 2011, beginning shortly after the 2003 American invasion that deposed longtime leader Saddam Hussein, and lasting until the end of the Iraq War and U.S. withdrawal in 2011. The initial outbreak of violence (the 2003–2006 phase) was triggered by the fall and preceded the establishment of the new Iraqi government by the Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF–I), which was led by the United States. From around 2004 to May 2007, Iraqi insurgents largely focused their attacks on MNF-I troops, but they later shifted to targeting the post-invasion Iraqi security forces as well. Even after the withdrawal of the MNF-I forces in 2011, a continued conflict occurred in the final phase of the Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013).

While the American people were initially supportive of these actions in Afghanistan, as a means to eliminate terrorists’ enclaves, mission creep began to occur for the purpose of instituting a government that would be insusceptible to future terrorists’ enclaves and more responsive to the Natural Rights of its people. Such mission creep drew Islamic fundamentalist resistance and an insurgency against the installed government, and led to a continued American presence in Afghanistan. The American people grew weary of such a long conflict without an end in sight, and with the casualties and the costs mounting, the American people grew weary of this conflict and resisted further involvement in this war, which resulted in a disastrous withdrawal that impacted America’s standing in world affairs.

Mission creep also occurred in the Iraq war, which also drew Islamic fundamentalist resistance and an insurgency against the installed government. With the casualties and the costs mounting, the American people grew weary of the conflict and resisted further involvement in this war.

These Middle East conflicts drew peaceful resistance in America to the continuation of these wars, which was resolved at the ballot box without militant or violent resistance against these wars.

Resistance Movements in Modern America

When Donald Trump won the Presidential election in 2016, the cries of “Resistance” rang through Progressives/Leftists and Democrat Party Leaders. But this resistance was not based upon self-rule and self-determination, nor the preservation of Liberties and Freedoms, but of resistance to preserve their Progressive ideology and ideas. As such, it was not a legitimate and praiseworthy resistance. In this resistance, no strategy or tactic was to be excluded, and nothing was off-limits to their resistance. False allegations and accusations, loathsome pejoratives, Congressional Hearings with no veracity, corruption of the FBI and the Intelligence community, IRS shenanigans, Lawfare against his supporters, physical and psychological intimidation, violence on the streets, and a steady drumbeat in the Mainstream Media against Trump and his supporters were all in play.

The 2020 Presidential elections were all about covering up the infirmities, lies, and corruption of Joe Biden and his family, while the negative drumbeat against President Trump in the "Mainstream Media", "Mainstream Cultural Media", "Social Media", "Big Tech",  "Modern Big Business", "Modern Education" was incessant. After Biden was elected, they even resorted to the suppression of Free Speech, Free Assembly, and the Freedom of the Press to further this resistance. Thus, this was not resistance but repressiveness. The governmental actions against Trump and his supporters were The Weaponization of Government, as I have examined in my collected Chirps on "The Weaponization of Government".

In an article by Victor Davis Hanson, “What the Left Did to Our Country”, he lays out a litany of actions that the Left has taken in the last two decades to “fundamentally transform” America. A transformation not based on our "American Ideals and Ideas" but on the imposition of Progressive ideology and ideas upon America. As such, it is time for resistance to arise in America to reclaim our American Ideals and Ideas. A resistance to reaffirming the ideals of The Declaration of Independence and the ideas of the Constitution of the United States. In such resistance, it should be remembered by the resistors that:

"We the people are the rightful masters of both Congress and the courts, not to overthrow the Constitution but to overthrow the men who pervert the Constitution."
  - Abraham Lincoln

Without active resistance by the American people to this Progressive resistance movement and the success thereof, it is quite possible that America will slide into despotism. Let us hope that we can counter this slide with the soap box, the ballot box, and the jury box rather than having to resort to the ammo box, as I have written in my Article, “The Four Boxes of Liberty”. But if we cannot successfully resist through the soap box, the ballot box, and the jury box, the ammo box may be necessary to preserve the last best hope of Liberty and Freedom from perishing from the Earth.

American Resistance Movements Recap

Militant or violent resistance movements in America have been common in our history, but most American resistance movements were for the purposes of self-rule and self-determination, the reaffirmation of the Natural Rights of the people, and the expansion of the Liberty and Freedoms of the people. As such, they were legitimate and praiseworthy resistance movements, and any resistance movement that is contrary to these goals is illegitimate and ignominious.

Resistance Movements in Modern World History

Post World War II, there were many resistance movements to oppose established authorities in the hopes of establishing Natural Rights amongst all the people of the world. These resistance movements were primarily against Communism and British and French Colonialism. In the case of British and French Colonialism, the resistance movements were successful in ending colonialism, sometimes peaceably and sometimes not. These colonialist resistance movements were for the purposes of self-rule and self-determination of the people of a country. Thus, they were legitimate and praiseworthy resistance movements. Unfortunately, violence often erupted during this resistance, and Natural Rights were often violated during the resistance. In some cases, the end of colonialism did not bring about self-rule and self-determination but tyranny that violated the Natural Rights of the people.

The yearning for Liberty and Freedom in post-World War II Communist countries led to many resistance movements in these countries. Some resistance movements were organized, and some were spontaneous. All were in an effort to establish self-rule, self-determination, and Natural Rights in these countries, and all were opposed by the communist governments. The Gulag in the Soviet Union, the State Police in Eastern Bloc European Iron Curtain countries, the Cultural Revolution in Red China, and other Crimes against Humanity under Communist Regimes occurred as a result of this resistance to Communist authorities. Eventually, Communism collapsed due to economic forces and the mass support for the resistance movements. The few remaining Communist countries adopted economic reforms to forestall economic ruination, but they continued to impose political oppression and violations of the Natural Rights of their people.

In Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East, resistance movements were often targeted against tyrannies and dictatorships. They were often violent and not often successful, and where they were successful, they often replaced one form of tyranny and dictatorship with another form of tyranny and dictatorship, or with a socialism, which is despotic, economically ruinous, contravenes Natural Rights, and constricts Liberties and Freedoms. Thus, the peoples of those countries did not achieve self-rule and self-determination, the Natural Rights of their peoples were ignored or suppressed, and the economic condition of the people was not improved and often deteriorated.

Consequently, when evaluating resistance movements, it is necessary to determine if the resistors are attempting to institute self-rule and self-determination and establish the Natural Rights of their people. Too often, a resistance movement has espoused laudatory purposes, but the ends are not commendable, or they become corrupted. Thus, it is even more important to determine if their intended goals are just words rather than deeds. A determination that is often difficult to ascertain and requires constant surveillance of the words and deeds of a resistance movement. For, as one of our Founding Fathers has said:

"Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty."
  - Thomas Jefferson

Any resistance movement that is for the purposes of self-rule and self-determination and the Liberties and Freedoms of its people is legitimate and should be supported by all liberty and freedom-loving people of the world. Conversely, any resistance movements that are not for these purposes should be opposed by all liberty and freedom-loving people of the world.